diff --git a/src/lib/services/document-templates.ts b/src/lib/services/document-templates.ts
index 1cd818c9..6263fe90 100644
--- a/src/lib/services/document-templates.ts
+++ b/src/lib/services/document-templates.ts
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 import { and, eq } from 'drizzle-orm';
 
 import { db } from '@/lib/db';
+import { formatDate } from '@/lib/utils/format-date';
 import { documentTemplates, documents, files } from '@/lib/db/schema/documents';
 import type { File as DbFile, Document as DbDocument } from '@/lib/db/schema/documents';
 import { clients, clientContacts } from '@/lib/db/schema/clients';
@@ -361,7 +362,7 @@ export async function resolveTemplate(
         tokenMap['{{interest.stage}}'] = interest.pipelineStage ?? '';
         tokenMap['{{interest.leadCategory}}'] = interest.leadCategory ?? '';
         tokenMap['{{interest.dateFirstContact}}'] = interest.dateFirstContact
-          ? new Date(interest.dateFirstContact).toLocaleDateString('en-GB')
+          ? formatDate(interest.dateFirstContact, 'date.medium', { fallback: '' })
           : '';
         // `{{interest.notes}}` is now sourced from the threaded
         // interest_notes timeline via EoiContext.interest.notes; this
@@ -372,10 +373,10 @@ export async function resolveTemplate(
       // These are never populated by EoiContext - always fill them in.
       tokenMap['{{interest.eoiStatus}}'] = interest.eoiStatus ?? '';
       tokenMap['{{interest.dateEoiSigned}}'] = interest.dateEoiSigned
-        ? new Date(interest.dateEoiSigned).toLocaleDateString('en-GB')
+        ? formatDate(interest.dateEoiSigned, 'date.medium', { fallback: '' })
         : '';
       tokenMap['{{interest.dateContractSigned}}'] = interest.dateContractSigned
-        ? new Date(interest.dateContractSigned).toLocaleDateString('en-GB')
+        ? formatDate(interest.dateContractSigned, 'date.medium', { fallback: '' })
         : '';
       // Derive berth number from the interest when berthId wasn't passed and
       // the EOI path didn't already populate it. Resolves through the
diff --git a/src/lib/services/expense-pdf.service.ts b/src/lib/services/expense-pdf.service.ts
index 467ed92e..fd5bfc7b 100644
--- a/src/lib/services/expense-pdf.service.ts
+++ b/src/lib/services/expense-pdf.service.ts
@@ -44,6 +44,7 @@ import { files } from '@/lib/db/schema/documents';
 import { ports } from '@/lib/db/schema/ports';
 import { getRate } from '@/lib/services/currency';
 import { resolvePortLogo } from '@/lib/pdf/brand-kit/logo';
+import { formatDate } from '@/lib/utils/format-date';
 import { formatCurrency } from '@/lib/utils/currency';
 import { getStorageBackend } from '@/lib/storage';
 import { logger } from '@/lib/logger';
@@ -605,7 +606,7 @@ function addHeader(
 
   // Move past the band and render the subheader below in black on white.
   doc.y = bandHeight + 12;
-  const subheader = opts.subheader ?? `Generated on ${new Date().toLocaleDateString()}`;
+  const subheader = opts.subheader ?? `Generated on ${formatDate(new Date(), 'date.medium')}`;
   doc.fontSize(11).font('Helvetica').fillColor('#666666').text(subheader, { align: 'center' });
   doc.fillColor('#000000').moveDown(0.8);
   // Suppress unused-warning on startY (kept as a documentation anchor).
diff --git a/src/lib/utils/format-date.ts b/src/lib/utils/format-date.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..d13c7df1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/lib/utils/format-date.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+/**
+ * Centralised date formatting helpers.
+ *
+ * Replaces ad-hoc `new Date(x).toLocaleDateString('en-GB')` calls
+ * scattered across services and components. Backed by `Intl.DateTimeFormat`
+ * which is built into Node 18+ and every supported browser — no extra
+ * dependency. Timezone-aware via the `tz` option (passes through to
+ * `Intl.DateTimeFormat`'s `timeZone` field — accepts any IANA name).
+ *
+ * Why a wrapper:
+ *   1. One place to fix locale, timezone, format presets when the
+ *      product needs to change them.
+ *   2. Defensive: `new Date(null)` → "Invalid Date" — we return "—".
+ *   3. Defensive: numeric epochs vs string dates handled uniformly.
+ *   4. Default to en-GB so the audit-flagged inconsistency (some sites
+ *      used en-US, some default-locale, some en-GB) is settled.
+ *
+ * Presets are named so call sites don't need to remember
+ * `Intl.DateTimeFormatOptions` shape — `formatDate(x, 'date.short')`
+ * instead of `formatDate(x, { day: '2-digit', month: 'short' })`.
+ */
+
+export type DatePreset =
+  | 'date.short' // 12 May
+  | 'date.medium' // 12 May 2026
+  | 'date.long' // Monday, 12 May 2026
+  | 'date.iso' // 2026-05-12
+  | 'datetime.short' // 12 May 14:30
+  | 'datetime.medium' // 12 May 2026 14:30
+  | 'datetime.long' // Monday, 12 May 2026 at 14:30 UTC
+  | 'datetime.iso' // 2026-05-12T14:30:00.000Z
+  | 'time'; // 14:30
+
+const PRESET_OPTIONS: Record<
+  Exclude<DatePreset, 'date.iso' | 'datetime.iso'>,
+  Intl.DateTimeFormatOptions
+> = {
+  'date.short': { day: '2-digit', month: 'short' },
+  'date.medium': { day: '2-digit', month: 'short', year: 'numeric' },
+  'date.long': { weekday: 'long', day: '2-digit', month: 'long', year: 'numeric' },
+  'datetime.short': {
+    day: '2-digit',
+    month: 'short',
+    hour: '2-digit',
+    minute: '2-digit',
+    hourCycle: 'h23',
+  },
+  'datetime.medium': {
+    day: '2-digit',
+    month: 'short',
+    year: 'numeric',
+    hour: '2-digit',
+    minute: '2-digit',
+    hourCycle: 'h23',
+  },
+  'datetime.long': {
+    weekday: 'long',
+    day: '2-digit',
+    month: 'long',
+    year: 'numeric',
+    hour: '2-digit',
+    minute: '2-digit',
+    hourCycle: 'h23',
+    timeZoneName: 'short',
+  },
+  time: { hour: '2-digit', minute: '2-digit', hourCycle: 'h23' },
+};
+
+const DEFAULT_LOCALE = 'en-GB';
+const DEFAULT_FALLBACK = '—';
+
+export interface FormatDateOptions {
+  /** IANA timezone — e.g. "Europe/London", "UTC". Defaults to the
+   *  runtime's local zone (server: usually UTC; browser: user's TZ). */
+  tz?: string;
+  /** BCP-47 locale tag. Defaults to en-GB. */
+  locale?: string;
+  /** What to show when the input is null/undefined/Invalid Date. */
+  fallback?: string;
+}
+
+function toDate(value: Date | string | number | null | undefined): Date | null {
+  if (value === null || value === undefined) return null;
+  if (value instanceof Date) return Number.isNaN(value.getTime()) ? null : value;
+  const parsed = new Date(value);
+  return Number.isNaN(parsed.getTime()) ? null : parsed;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Format a Date / ISO string / epoch ms with one of the named presets.
+ * Defaults to `date.medium` (12 May 2026) in en-GB at the runtime's
+ * local zone. Pass `tz: 'UTC'` for stamps that should be tz-invariant.
+ */
+export function formatDate(
+  value: Date | string | number | null | undefined,
+  preset: DatePreset = 'date.medium',
+  options: FormatDateOptions = {},
+): string {
+  const date = toDate(value);
+  if (!date) return options.fallback ?? DEFAULT_FALLBACK;
+
+  const locale = options.locale ?? DEFAULT_LOCALE;
+
+  if (preset === 'date.iso') {
+    if (options.tz && options.tz !== 'UTC') {
+      // For non-UTC ISO date we have to compute the date components in
+      // the target zone manually since toISOString is always UTC.
+      const parts = new Intl.DateTimeFormat('en-CA', {
+        year: 'numeric',
+        month: '2-digit',
+        day: '2-digit',
+        timeZone: options.tz,
+      }).formatToParts(date);
+      const y = parts.find((p) => p.type === 'year')?.value ?? '';
+      const m = parts.find((p) => p.type === 'month')?.value ?? '';
+      const d = parts.find((p) => p.type === 'day')?.value ?? '';
+      return `${y}-${m}-${d}`;
+    }
+    // Faster path for UTC / default.
+    return date.toISOString().slice(0, 10);
+  }
+  if (preset === 'datetime.iso') {
+    // ISO datetime is always UTC by definition.
+    return date.toISOString();
+  }
+
+  const intlOpts: Intl.DateTimeFormatOptions = { ...PRESET_OPTIONS[preset] };
+  if (options.tz) intlOpts.timeZone = options.tz;
+  return new Intl.DateTimeFormat(locale, intlOpts).format(date);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Format a [start, end] date range. Smartly collapses repeated components
+ * — e.g. same year shows "12 May → 14 Aug 2026" not "12 May 2026 → 14 Aug 2026".
+ */
+export function formatDateRange(
+  start: Date | string | number | null | undefined,
+  end: Date | string | number | null | undefined,
+  options: FormatDateOptions = {},
+): string {
+  const s = toDate(start);
+  const e = toDate(end);
+  const fallback = options.fallback ?? DEFAULT_FALLBACK;
+  if (!s && !e) return fallback;
+  if (!s) return `→ ${formatDate(e, 'date.medium', options)}`;
+  if (!e) return `${formatDate(s, 'date.medium', options)} →`;
+  const sameYear = s.getUTCFullYear() === e.getUTCFullYear();
+  if (sameYear) {
+    return `${formatDate(s, 'date.short', options)} → ${formatDate(e, 'date.medium', options)}`;
+  }
+  return `${formatDate(s, 'date.medium', options)} → ${formatDate(e, 'date.medium', options)}`;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Format a duration relative to now — "2 hours ago", "in 3 days", etc.
+ * Uses `Intl.RelativeTimeFormat` for proper i18n; falls back to "just now"
+ * for very small deltas.
+ */
+export function formatRelative(
+  value: Date | string | number | null | undefined,
+  options: { locale?: string; now?: Date } = {},
+): string {
+  const date = toDate(value);
+  if (!date) return DEFAULT_FALLBACK;
+  const now = options.now ?? new Date();
+  const diffSec = (date.getTime() - now.getTime()) / 1000;
+
+  const rtf = new Intl.RelativeTimeFormat(options.locale ?? DEFAULT_LOCALE, { numeric: 'auto' });
+  const abs = Math.abs(diffSec);
+  if (abs < 45) return 'just now';
+  if (abs < 90) return rtf.format(Math.round(diffSec / 60), 'minute');
+  if (abs < 3600) return rtf.format(Math.round(diffSec / 60), 'minute');
+  if (abs < 86400) return rtf.format(Math.round(diffSec / 3600), 'hour');
+  if (abs < 86400 * 30) return rtf.format(Math.round(diffSec / 86400), 'day');
+  if (abs < 86400 * 365) return rtf.format(Math.round(diffSec / (86400 * 30)), 'month');
+  return rtf.format(Math.round(diffSec / (86400 * 365)), 'year');
+}
diff --git a/tests/unit/format-date.test.ts b/tests/unit/format-date.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..15683da2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/unit/format-date.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+import { describe, expect, it } from 'vitest';
+
+import { formatDate, formatDateRange, formatRelative } from '@/lib/utils/format-date';
+
+describe('formatDate', () => {
+  const REF = '2026-05-12T14:30:45.000Z';
+
+  it('returns fallback for null/undefined/invalid', () => {
+    expect(formatDate(null)).toBe('—');
+    expect(formatDate(undefined)).toBe('—');
+    expect(formatDate('not a date')).toBe('—');
+    expect(formatDate(NaN)).toBe('—');
+    expect(formatDate(null, 'date.medium', { fallback: 'N/A' })).toBe('N/A');
+  });
+
+  it('formats date.iso correctly in UTC', () => {
+    expect(formatDate(REF, 'date.iso', { tz: 'UTC' })).toBe('2026-05-12');
+  });
+
+  it('formats date.iso correctly in a different timezone', () => {
+    // 14:30 UTC = 00:30 next day in Sydney (UTC+10)
+    expect(formatDate(REF, 'date.iso', { tz: 'Australia/Sydney' })).toBe('2026-05-13');
+  });
+
+  it('formats datetime.iso as full ISO string', () => {
+    expect(formatDate(REF, 'datetime.iso')).toBe('2026-05-12T14:30:45.000Z');
+  });
+
+  it('formats date.medium in en-GB', () => {
+    // Intl output may vary slightly across Node versions; assert it
+    // contains the expected day + month + year and uses no "/".
+    const out = formatDate(REF, 'date.medium', { tz: 'UTC' });
+    expect(out).toMatch(/12\s/); // day
+    expect(out).toContain('2026');
+    expect(out.toLowerCase()).toContain('may');
+  });
+
+  it('respects timezone — datetime.short in different zones', () => {
+    const ny = formatDate(REF, 'datetime.short', { tz: 'America/New_York' });
+    const utc = formatDate(REF, 'datetime.short', { tz: 'UTC' });
+    expect(ny).not.toBe(utc);
+    expect(utc).toContain('14:30');
+  });
+
+  it('formats time-only correctly', () => {
+    expect(formatDate(REF, 'time', { tz: 'UTC' })).toBe('14:30');
+  });
+
+  it('accepts Date instances + epoch ms', () => {
+    const d = new Date(REF);
+    expect(formatDate(d, 'date.iso', { tz: 'UTC' })).toBe('2026-05-12');
+    expect(formatDate(d.getTime(), 'date.iso', { tz: 'UTC' })).toBe('2026-05-12');
+  });
+});
+
+describe('formatDateRange', () => {
+  it('handles missing start/end', () => {
+    expect(formatDateRange(null, null)).toBe('—');
+    expect(formatDateRange('2026-05-12', null)).toMatch(/→$/);
+    expect(formatDateRange(null, '2026-05-12')).toMatch(/^→/);
+  });
+
+  it('collapses year when start + end are in same year', () => {
+    const out = formatDateRange('2026-05-12', '2026-08-14', { tz: 'UTC' });
+    // Start should NOT include year; end should.
+    expect(out).toContain('→');
+    expect(out).toContain('2026');
+    // Crude check: there's only one "2026" in the output.
+    expect((out.match(/2026/g) ?? []).length).toBe(1);
+  });
+
+  it('keeps year on both when years differ', () => {
+    const out = formatDateRange('2025-12-20', '2026-01-05', { tz: 'UTC' });
+    expect((out.match(/202\d/g) ?? []).length).toBe(2);
+  });
+});
+
+describe('formatRelative', () => {
+  const NOW = new Date('2026-05-12T12:00:00.000Z');
+
+  it('returns "just now" for tiny deltas', () => {
+    expect(formatRelative(new Date(NOW.getTime() - 5_000), { now: NOW })).toBe('just now');
+  });
+
+  it('uses minutes for past deltas under an hour', () => {
+    const ten = new Date(NOW.getTime() - 10 * 60_000);
+    const out = formatRelative(ten, { now: NOW });
+    expect(out).toMatch(/minute/);
+  });
+
+  it('uses hours for past deltas in the same day', () => {
+    const three = new Date(NOW.getTime() - 3 * 3600_000);
+    const out = formatRelative(three, { now: NOW });
+    expect(out).toMatch(/hour/);
+  });
+
+  it('uses days for past deltas across days', () => {
+    const yesterday = new Date(NOW.getTime() - 86_400_000);
+    const out = formatRelative(yesterday, { now: NOW });
+    expect(out).toMatch(/day|yesterday/i);
+  });
+
+  it('uses future tense for future dates', () => {
+    const tomorrow = new Date(NOW.getTime() + 86_400_000);
+    const out = formatRelative(tomorrow, { now: NOW });
+    expect(out).toMatch(/day|tomorrow/i);
+  });
+
+  it('returns fallback for invalid input', () => {
+    expect(formatRelative(null)).toBe('—');
+  });
+});